Diagnostic methods

Parasitological diagnosis
Ova can be found in sputum or faeces. Humans can be infected with several species (P. westermani, P. heterotremus, P. kellicotti, P. uterobilateralis and others).
WARNING: acid-fast staining for tuberculosis destroys the eggs and precludes diagnosis!

Molecular diagnosis
PCR-RFLP or multiplex PCR allows the species differentiation of metacercariae or adult worms

Antigen detection
No tests developed so far

Antibody detection
Home-made serological tests (mainly ELISAs using crude worm extracts or excretory/secretory antigens) have been developed which all have a problem with specificity. Tests with recombinant antigens have not yet been fully validated.

Diagnostic strategies

Besides parasitological examinations, no special diagnostic strategy can be recommended today!